Linux Partition Sizes

A swap partition (2048)

A /boot partition (200)

A / partition
A /var/log partition (2048)
A /var/www partition (2048)

A /boot/ partition (250 MB) A swap partition (at least 256 MB) Root and /root

A root partition (3.0 GB - 5.0 GB)

Swap partitions are used to support virtual memory. In other words, data is written to a swap partition when there is not enough RAM to store the data your system is processing.

4GB of RAM or less................ a minimum of 2GB of swap space

4GB to 16GB of RAM.............. a minimum of 4GB of swap space

16GB to 64GB of RAM.............a minimum of 8GB of swap space

64GB to 256GB of RAM.......... a minimum of 16GB of swap space

256GB to 512GB of RAM........ a minimum of 32GB of swap space

A /boot/ partition (250 MB)

The partition mounted on /boot/ contains the operating system kernel (which allows your system to boot Fedora), along with files used during the bootstrap process. For most users, a 250 MB boot partition is sufficient.

A root partition (3.0 GB - 5.0 GB)

This is where "/" (the root directory) is located. In this setup, all files (except those stored in /boot) are on the root partition.

A 3.0 GB partition allows you to install a minimal installation, while a 5.0 GB root partition lets you perform a full installation, choosing all package groups.

/............... 250 MB

/usr......... 250 MB, but avoid placing this on a separate partition

/tmp........ 50 MB

/var......... 384 MB

/home..... 100 MB

/boot....... 250 MB

The /var directory holds content for a number of applications, including the Apache web server. It also is used to store downloaded update packages on a temporary basis. Ensure that the partition containing the /var directory has enough space to download pending updates and hold your other content.

The /usr directory holds the majority of software content on a Fedora system. For an installation of the default set of software, allocate at least 4 GB of space. If you are a software developer or plan to use your Fedora system to learn software development skills, you may want to at least double this allocation.

The / (or root) partition is the top of the directory structure. The /root directory (sometimes pronounced "slash-root") directory is the home directory of the user account for system administration.

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File System Types

Fedora allows you to create different partition types, based on the file system they will use. The following is a brief description of the different file systems available, and how they can be utilized.

Btrfs — Btrfs is under development as a file system capable of addressing and managing more files, larger files, and larger volumes than the ext2, ext3, and ext4 file systems. Btrfs is designed to make the file system tolerant of errors, and to facilitate the detection and repair of errors when they occur. It uses checksums to ensure the validity of data and metadata, and maintains snapshots of the file system that can be used for backup or repair.

Because Btrfs is still experimental and under development, the installation program does not offer it by default. If you want to create a Btrfs partition on a drive, you must commence the installation process with the boot optionbtrfs.

Btrfs is still experimental

Fedora 13 includes Btrfs as a technology preview to allow you to experiment with this file system. You should not choose Btrfs for partitions that will contain valuable data or that are essential for the operation of important systems.

ext2 — An ext2 file system supports standard Unix file types (regular files, directories, symbolic links, etc). It provides the ability to assign long file names, up to 255 characters.

ext3 — The ext3 file system is based on the ext2 file system and has one main advantage — journaling. Using a journaling file system reduces time spent recovering a file system after a crash as there is no need to fsck the file system.

ext4 — The ext4 file system is based on the ext3 file system and features a number of improvements. These include support for larger file systems and larger files, faster and more efficient allocation of disk space, no limit on the number of subdirectories within a directory, faster file system checking, and more robust journalling. The ext4 file system is selected by default and is highly recommended.

physical volume (LVM) — Creating one or more physical volume (LVM) partitions allows you to create an LVM logical volume. LVM can improve performance when using physical disks.

software RAID — Creating two or more software RAID partitions allows you to create a RAID device.

swap — Swap partitions are used to support virtual memory. In other words, data is written to a swap partition when there is not enough RAM to store the data your system is processing.

vfat — The VFAT file system is a Linux file system that is compatible with Microsoft Windows long filenames on the FAT file system. This file system must be used for the /boot/efi/ partition on Itanium systems.

xfs — XFS is a highly scalable, high-performance file system that supports filesystems up to 16 exabytes (approximately 16 million terabytes), files up to 8 exabytes (approximately 8 million terabytes) and directory structures containing tens of millions of entries. XFS supports metadata journaling, which facilitates quicker crash recovery. The XFS file system can also be defragmented and resized while mounted and active.

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About YUM(Yellodog Updater, Modified)

Yellowdog Updater, Modified (yum)

RPM (RedHat Package Manager)

GPL (General Public License)

1. Install a Package with YUM

# yum install firefox

# yum -y remove firefox

2. Removing a Package with YUM

# yum remove firefox

3. Updating a Package using YUM

# yum update mysql

4. List all Available Packages using YUM

# yum list | less

5. Yum Provides Function

# yum provides /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf

6. Check for Available Updates using Yum

# yum check-update

7. Update System using Yum

# yum update

8. List all available Group Packages

# yum grouplist

9. Install a Group Packages

# yum groupinstall 'MySQL Database'

10. Update a Group Packages

# yum groupupdate 'DNS Name Server'

11. Remove a Group Packages

# yum groupremove 'DNS Name Server'

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Useful Web Site!.

You can download basic needed software from a place. This website has more WINDOWS' and MAC'S soft wares. Click here go there!.

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What is shareware?

Shareware is software that is distributed free on a trial basis with the understanding that the user may need or want to pay for it later. Some software developers offer a shareware version of their program with a built-in expiration date (after 30 days, the user can no longer get access to the program). Other shareware (sometimes called liteware) is offered with certain capabilities disabled as an enticement to buy the complete version of the program.

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Install Tamil Font

You want to download Bamini font. Here you can download Bamini font free of cost. Click the following link.
Tamil Fonts

Microsoft Windows users:

Way 1: Open the Bamini font and click the install button.

Way 2: Copy the Bamini font and paste into font directory at Control Panel.
Sinhala Fonts

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PING

PING - Packet INternet Groper

Packet Internet or Inter-Network Groper (PING)

Ping is a network diagnostic tool used primarily to test the connectivity between two nodes or device.

To ping a destination node, an Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) echo request packet is sent to that node.

If a connection is available, the destination node responds with an echo reply.

Ping calculates the round-trip time of the data packet's route from its source to the destination and back, and determines whether any packets were lost during the trip.

The network ping tool was created by Mike Muuss in 1983. It contains almost one thousand lines of code and has become the standard packaged tool for various network applications and operating systems.

The ping utility works by generating an ICMP data unit that is then encapsulated into IP datagrams and transmitted over the network. After receiving the echo request, the destination node copies its payload, destroys the original packet and generates an echo reply with the same payload it received. 

The payload of the echo request packet often consists of American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) characters with variable adjustable lengths. Round-trip time is calculated by noting the local time of the source node clock when the IP datagram leaves the source node, then subtracting that time from the time at which the echo reply arrives. 

Depending on the operating system, ping utility output varies. However, almost all ping outputs display the following: 

Destination IP address 

ICMP sequence number 

Time to live (TTL) - TTL is used in IP (TCP/UDP are on top of IP) to kill off a packet if it travels too far. 

Round-trip time 

Payload size 

The number of packets lost during transmission

The ping tool displays various error messages if a round trip is not completed successfully. They include the following:

TTL Expired in Transit: Determines the maximum amount of time an IP packet may live over the network before being discarded if it has not reached its destination. To address this error, try to increase TTL value by using the ping -i switch. 

Destination Host Unreachable: Indicates that the destination node is down or is not operating on the network. It may even occur due to the non-existence of a local or remote      route for the destination host. To address this error, modify the local route table or switch the node on.

Request Timed Out: Indicates that the ping command timed out because there was no reply from the host. It indicates that no echo reply messages were received due to network traffic, failure of Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) request packet filtering or a router error. Increasing the wait time using the ping –w switch may address this problem.

Unknown Host: Indicates that the IP address or the host name does not exist in the network or that the destination host name cannot be resolved. To address this issue, verify the name and availability of the domain name system (DNS) servers

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General Public License - GNU

The GNU General Public License (GNU GPL or GPL) is the most widely used free software license, which guarantees end users (individuals, organizations, companies) the freedoms to run, study, share (copy), and modify the software.

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What is proprietary software?

Proprietary software (non-free software/closed-source software) is software that is owned by an individual or a company (usually the one that developed it). There are almost always major restrictions on its use, and its source code is almost always kept secret.

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Kind Of Extension Of Domain.

There are many different types of domain extensions you can choose for your domain name. This depends on your business nature. If you are going to register a domain name for educational site purpose then you can go for .edu extension. Below is a reference of the correct usage of certain extensions. But there is no hard and fast rule to go for any extension. Most commonly used is .com

1).com - Stands for company/commercial, but it can be used for any web site.

2).net - Stands for network and is usually used for a network of sites.

3).org - Stands for organization and is supposed to be for non-profit bodies.

4).us, .in - They are based on your country names so that you can go for country specific domain extensions.

5).biz - A newer extension on the Internet and can be used to indicate that this site is purely related to business.

6).info - Stands for information. This domain name extension can be very useful, and as a new comer it's doing well.

7).tv - Stands for Television and are more appropriate for TV channel sites.

Newer domain extensions such as .biz .info and .us etc. have more name choices available as many of the popular domains have yet to be taken and most of them are available at very nominal prices.

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Need of CC or BCC in emails.

CC means carbon copy and BC means blind copy. If you are sending an email out to some one why would you CC them if you can just put there email in the "TO" space along with everyone your sending it to? and blind copy is just dumb. Explain it?

In a business environment To: is used for the main persons you're communicating with on a matter. Cc: would be used for other names who just need to know about the issue, but who are not actually in the conversation. 

Some people use Bcc: to send to many people without each seeing the other's address, but it could also be used to cause mischief by copying an active conversation to someone else secretly.

BCC is a very good thing to use. 
You can send the email to many people, but they cant see the email addresses of the other people, to whom it was sent.

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"ADSL" and "BROADBAND"

What is SLT Broadband (ADSL)?

SLT Broadband provides you consistent, uninterrupted, high speed internet access through ADSL technology. It converts your regular phone line into a high-speed digital link, enabling simultaneous transmission of voice and data, as opposed to dial-up internet. As a result of switching to Broadband ADSL, data can be transferred at greatly increased speeds. and above.

What does the terms "ADSL" and "BROADBAND" refer to?

Broadband refers to a form of telecommunication that allows higher data transfer rates. Broadband transfers data at least 10 times faster than standard dial-up, because it provides wide band of frequencies to transfer data at the same time.

ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) is a broadband connection technology which utilizes existing copper wired telephone networks. ADSL is ‘asymmetric’ because it facilitates different speeds for downloading and uploading, for optimized performance. This is the reason why ADSL packages always quote higher download speeds compared to upload speeds

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Attrib

Displays, sets, or removes the read-only, archive, system, and hidden attributes assigned to files or directories. Used without parameters, attrib displays attributes of all files in the current directory.

+r : Sets the read-only file attribute.

-r : Clears the read-only file attribute.

+a : Sets the archive file attribute.

-a : Clears the archive file attribute.

+s : Sets the system file attribute.

-s : Clears the system file attribute.

+h : Sets the hidden file attribute.

-h : Clears the hidden file attribute.

/s : Applies attrib and any command-line options to matching files in the current directory and all of its subdirectories.

/d : Applies attrib and any command-line options to directories.

/? : Displays help at the command prompt.

Ex : attrib -s -h /s /d

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Access Point (AP)

1. In computer networking, a wireless access point (AP) is a device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi, or related standards. The AP usually connects to a router (via a wired network) as a standalone device, but it can also be an integral component of the router itself.
2. 

   
   

   

   
   

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